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COP^tRIGIfr DEPOSm 



Coremaking 



COREMAKING 



By 
DR. RICHARD MOLDENKE 



COMPLIMENTS 

of 

CORN PRODUCTS REFINING COMPANY 

New York 






Copyright 1918 
CORN PRODUCTS REFINING CO. 

All rights reserved 



OCT l8l9iB 
©CI.A506230 



To the Foundry men: 

So many of the losses in the Foundry due to imperfect 
castings can be laid to core-room practice, and so little has 
been done to study the several determining factors which are 
important for the perfect core for the work in hand, that we 
have sought to obtain for foundrymen authoritative informa- 
tion bearing upon core-room progress. To this end, we 
secured the services of Dr. Richard Moldenke, of international 
reputation in foundry work, to make a line of tests with 
various core-binders, sand mixtures, baking temperatures, etc., 
to aid the foundryman in judging the material he buys and in 
using the same most effectively. 

The article presented herewith deserves the careful attention 
of all foundrymen. To make the booklet of additional value 
for reference, a collection of tables is included giving informa- 
tion useful, but frequently not at hand in convenient form. 
It is hoped that this publication may fill an existing need, and 
serve to awaken interest and investigation. 
Respectfully, 

Corn Products Refining Company. 



^'-Z yit^"^ 



Coremaking 

by Dr. Richard Moldenke 

ONE of the retarding influences in manufacturing enterprise 
is the ever present tendency to sacrifice quality to quan- 
tity production. This condition is noticeable in every line of 
business and is the cause of dissatisfaction and pecuniary loss to 
an extent but little realized. Every one interested thinks him- 
self che one specially selected as the victim. 

A manufacturer of molding machines who is honest enough 
to guarantee say one hundred and fifty molds, in figuring on 
a prospective order, will find himself in competition with a 
rival guaranteeing six hundred in equal time on his type of 
machine. The careful man loses the order and the foundry- 
man, by the time he puts the remains of the over-rated 
machine in his cupola, fervently wishes he could put the builder 
in with it. No one is satisfied and all have lost out in some 
way. 

The foundryman should not so much want to see a beautiful 
park of molds ready for pouring when the blast goes on, as that 
every one of the molds made will turn out a satisfactory cast- 
ing. This pays in the end, and obviates the constant squabbles 
with molder and customer over imperfect work. 

Good Castings 

The elements entering into the making of a good casting may 
be summed up as follows : Good metal and fuel into the cupola ; 
perfect melting and molding practice; good sand, cores, and 
above all proper gating; with these arranged for, the results 
should pass muster. A molding sand is good when of uniform 
grain size, the bond a fat refractory clay, and carrying a mini- 
mum of fluxing impurities. When properly tempered with water 
and judiciously rammed it forms a safe container for the molten 
metal. For greater resistance to the pressure and cutting action 
of the molten metal a mold may be dried. The strength of the 
sand structure goes up at once, the chances of failure from sand 
troubles diminish and the castings are more readily machinable. 

The Core 

A core is a body of sand placed in the mold to form a corre- 
sponding cavity in the casting. From this it will be noticed that 

3 



COREMAKING 

whereas the mold proper consists of compressed sand surround- 
ing the molten metal poured in, the core is in the reverse situa- 
tion; namely, a body of compressed sand almost entirely sur- 
rounded by molten metal. The sand surfaces of the mold allow 
the gases emanating from the setting metal, as well as the steam 
generated in the sand itself, to escape. In the case of the core, 
however, any steam or gases formed through contact of the 
molten metal with component parts subject to decomposition, 
must either be given free venting through the core itself to the 
atmosphere or else these gases will "kick" back into the metal 
and form a "blow," ruining the work. 

Core Sand 

The character of the sand used for a core must, therefore, be 
far more open than that for the mold itself. Indeed, small cores 
are usually made of sand free from all clay bond, and in the 
larger ones molding sand is added for the purpose of strengthen- 
ing the core body. Since not more than a third of the core- 
mixture for large work may be molding sand, and even this of 
coarse structure, the strength of the result will be still far below 
that of the molding sand itself unmixed with sharp or fire sand 
free from bond. Imagine adding twice as much sharp sand to 
one of the sand-heaps on the molding floor, mixing thoroughly 
and then attempting to mold with this. If it is at all possible 
to hold the copes from dropping, the corners and edges of 
the mold will be quickly washed away by the molten metal 
in pouring. 

The Binder 

Nevertheless, for purposes of affording a sufficiently quick 
and safe exit for the gases through a core, this must be made 
of very open sand; clean, round, uniform-sized grains which 
cannot be packed together sufficiently to close up the spaces 
between them being most desirable. Manifestly, such a sand 
could not be held together without an added binding material 
strong enough in character to require but little of it so that 
the venting power of the core be not interfered with. The 
nature and method of applying such binders in core-making 
will be gone into more fully further on. Attention should 
be called at this point to the unusual strength requirements 
of cores as against those of the mold itself. 

The Mold 

The compressed sand of the mold is firmly held in wooden 
or preferably iron flasks provided with all kinds of cross- 
bars and similar devices to hold the sand in place before and 



COREMAKING 

during the filling of the mold with the molten metal. This 
metal would then exert a pressure within the mold tending to 
compress the sand still further (swelling the casting) and 
also to lift the cope. It is naturally assumed that the cope 
is clamped tight upon the drag and that the entire flask is 
strong enough to resist deformation of any kind. The ferro- 
static pressure of the molten metal is a very patent thing to 
be reckoned with, as every molder who makes his first stand- 
ard test bar mold will know. The bar is V/i" diameter 
and IS" high — the bar being cast vertical with top pour. 
Usually the first few bars come out looking more like Indian 
clubs than the nice straight cylinders they should be. The 
sand of the lower portion of the mold has been compressed 
that much in addition to the regular ramming up by the 
molder. 

In the core the foundryman nas usually to deal with the 
powerful buoyant action of the molten metal exerted on long, 
comparatively thin-sectioned horizontal bodies of sand im- 
bedded in the sides of the mold. Unless such cores are made 
of exceptionally strong sand and binder mixtures, and are in 
addition provided with heavy iron rods, they may readily 
bend upward in the centre or even break in two. The selec- 
tion of the sand to be used and the core-binder to be added, 
therefore, is a vital issue in the foundry and to which the 
foundryman cannot give too much attention. 

Sand Characteristics 

So far as the sand is concerned, the ideal one is composed 
of round grains of equal size, these grains well finished by 
nature so that they may resist the action of heat without 
splitting up or crumbling. The finer the grain size, the smoother 
the surface the core will leave. On the other hand, the finer, 
the less the venting power. Hence the foundryman should 
select the finest grain he dare safely use. For large cores this 
means very coarse sand, even shading into fine gravel. Where 
the portions of the core which are imbedded in the mold to 
hold it in proper position are ample for good venting, the 
addition of molding sand is advisable, as this not only adds 
strength to the core but also may save bmder — clay being 
nature's binder and far cheaper than any manufactured 
product. In most foundries the molds when shaken out yield 
so many large coreprints that it is necessary to use them over 
in the mixture in sheer self-defense — to hold down the bills 
for removal of the foundry dump. Core mixtures, therefore, 
are usually made up of core-sand (more or less free from 
day 4)ond) , molding sand, and old cores which have been 



COREMAKING 

crushed up. To these mixtures there is added the core- 
binder. 

Cores are always made with the mixture in the damp 
state, the binder being either a liquid, such as linseed oil, 
or liquid binders thinned down with water, such as molasses- 
water; or dry binders mixed with the comparatively dry sand 
mixture, and then wet up to bring out the adhesive qualities 
of the binder. After ramming up the cores they must be 
baked. This operation consists of two distinct steps; first 
the actual drying, or evaporation of the water content, and 
then the baking proper. This gives the core its desired strength 
and removes as far as possible the component parts subject to 
destructive distillation when the molten iron touches it. The 
gas-making parts of the core being thus removed, there iS 
still a final destruction of the binding substances required 
from the continued contact with molten iron, for the core 
must crumble and be easily removed from the recess it has 
formed in the casting. 

Core Requirements 

The service requirements of a good core may be summed 
up as follows: — It should stand up well enough in the green 
state to enable safe handling for baking. It must not swell 
or crack during baking, or soften and deform in storage 
within a reasonable time. The binder originally evenly dis- 
tributed throughout the core should remain so and not draw 
to the skin sufficiently to endanger the result. A core should 
not soften, deform or "blow" during contact with molten 
iron before this has had time to set. It should crush easily 
after the casting has cooled and be readily rapped out. 

Cores must be well vented, and are best not set into the 
mold unless this is pretty certain to be poured the same day. 
Molds that have been closed up and are not poured off should 
be opened up next morning to examine the cores for moisture, 
as these — ^particularly with binders requiring water to moisten 
or dilute them for use — are prone to re-absorb it if not 
changed in character by thorough baking. 

Classes of Core Binders 

The core binders in general use may be classified as follows: 

Water-soluble binders 

Paste binders 

Colloidal and allied bodies 

Gums and Pitches 

Oils 
The foundryman ordinarily, hov/ever, classifies the binders 
as dry and liquid. 



COREMAKING 

Binder Characteristics 

The more important of the water-soluble binders are mo- 
lasses, "hydrol" and the neutralized and concentrated waste 
sulphite liquors of the paper pulp process. Molasses is known 
to everyone. "Hydrol" is a syrup having the same relation 
to corn sugar that molasses has to cane sugar. The material 
on the market today should not be confounded with a former 
imported product ("hydrol" — oil soluble in water) which 
gave very poor and uncertain results as a core binder. The 
treated sulphite liquors above mentioned are much used in 
coremaking in conjunction with clay and other binders, and 
for their strength depend upon the soluble vegetable resins 
contained. The fact that the resins form but a very small 
part of the material accounts for the poor results obtained 
in the tests described later on when used with clean sand. 
The binder shows up better with molding sand additions. 

In general, these binders are good so far as their adhesive 
properties are concerned, as in drying they draw to a point 
between the sand grains and thus cement them together. The 
two objections to the entire class, however, are the tendency 
of the binders to draw to the skin, leaving a weak interior, 
and the softening of the cores in damp places and within 
molds. The introduction of colloid substances, such as clay, 
counteracts the migratory tendency of the binder somewhat, 
and hence the use of molding sand in the core mixture. 

Softening of Cores 

The softening of the cores is a serious problem, for not 
only are lost castings to be reckoned with, but the storage 
of surplus stock becomes impossible. The difficulty is aggra- 
vated where the core-storage room is damp, of stone or con- 
crete and apt to condense moisture from the air. Actual 
tests have shown that the trouble may be overcome by a 
proper baking of the cores. Underbaked cores will soften. 
On the other hand, overbaked cores are weak, and it there- 
fore becomes a question of good core ovens and attention to 
the temperatures maintained in them. The driving off of the 
water in the soft cores requires time, but after this has been 
accomplished the baking itself is not a very long process. 
Core ovens on the down-draft principle work best. The core 
plates are put in near the bottom under the influence of the 
hot gases and air sweeping downward. The moisture is thus 
driven out and carried away in the bottom flues and up the 
stack. When dry the cores should be put into the upper 
part of the oven where the temperature is higher and be 
given the additional heat treatment to bake them well. If 



COREMAKING 

the temperature of the lower portion of the oven be ke-> 
not less than 250 degrees F. and the upper regions 
(or in the case of linseed oil cores at 475 degrees 
satisfactory situation will be maintained. These temperatui 
can be raised somewhat if the men are alert enough to tal 
out the cores when properly baked. This hastens the proces. 
Prolonged baking, however, under these conditions producei. 
burnt and therefore weak cores. 

In the tests to be described later, the broken cores were 
placed in a very damp cellar with concrete walls and floor. 
The underbaked cores were all affected more or less by the 
existing dampness, some of them flattening out badly. Where 
the maximum safe drying temperature had been reached, how- 
ever, and where overstepped a little, the cores remained per 
fectly dry and safe to use in the mold. This indicates tha 
complaints about the core room can be obviated to a con 
siderable extent, if not entirely, by proper attention to th.. 
oven construction and baking process. 

Paste Binders 

The paste binders are among the oldest and best knowr. 
of all. Flour is still the old stand-by in many shops, but ha 
the objection that unless sparingly used the cores will swell 
Further, in baking, the acrid smoke evolved is almost in 
supportable where the ventilation is poor. The development 
of this class of binders has, therefore, run in the direction ot 
separating the essential binding principle from the inert parts 
of the cereals used, and putting this concentrated adhesive 
material into the dry binders of commerce. 

Probably the best of all dry binders are those having £ 
dextrin base. When properly manufactured and proportionec 
these binders are so strong that but little is required in th^ 
core mixture and hence in baking the smoke and annoyance, 
incident to the use of flour in poorly designed ovens, is done 
away with practically altogether. To utiUze these binderr 
to the fullest advantage the core-mixture should be temperec 
up in the afternoon previous to use. This will thoroughly 
soften the binder and allow it to spread evenly and thinl> 
between the grains of the sand, giving much of the effec 
obtained with the water-soluble binders. A second mixing 
in the morning completes the preparation of the batch anc 
breaks up all lumps, leaving a fine uniform mbcture for tht 
work in hand. 

The disadvantage of the group is the tendency to draw 
moisture if not properly baked, though not to as serious an 
extent as with the water-soluble binders. The growing de- 

S 



COREMAKING 

.mands upon the core room, particularly when larger classes 
H' work are made necessary by the advent of the jarring 
. chine and molds made up almost entirely of cores, must 
•'Vcsult in greater attention to this rather neglected foundry 
department. Among other things, cores will be baked at 
proper temperatures after the moisture contained has been 
entirely removed, so that they do not come out with hard, 
brown surfaces and a soft interior. Attention will also be 
given to blacking materials so that the carrying medium may 
incidentally act as a protection along the lines of water- 
proofing. In the meantime, however, foundrymen should see 
that the core-drying capacity is well ahead of their require- 
ments, so that the work need not be rushed unduly. 

Other Binders 

The Colloidal bodies derive their binding power from the 
glue or jelly-like constituents they contain. Clay is the best 
of them. Manure, magnesia, aluminum and iron compounds 
find their application in some measure in foundry specialty 
work. But after all, clay fills the bill best and its presence 
in molding sand makes this the desirable medium for adding 
strength to the core mixture so long as the venting power of 
the finished core is not interfered with too seriously. 

The Gums and Pitches are best represented by rosin for the 
first named, and the tars entering the so-called black com- 
pounds for the latter. Rosin, when melting, will run about 
the grains and cement them together on cooling. As it does 
not bind the core when green, other substances must be used. 
Clay may be sufficient, but usually flour or a better grade 
paste binder has to be added to the mixture to enable the 
use of rosin at all. The constantly rising cost of the gums 
is steadily making them too expensive for coremaking pur- 
poses. The pilches are particularly good for the larger classes 
of cores, but as they carbonize under the influence of molten 
iron they give much difficulty in the cleaning room. This has, 
therefore, to be reckoned with when using them in sufficient 
quantity to give satisfactory results. 

The best representative of the oil group is Linseed Oil. It 
is rarely obtained by foundries in the pure state, but is adul- 
terated, if not entirely replaced in many instances by other 
cheaper vegetable and mineral oils. The fact that this oil de- 
pends upon a rapid oxidation of the thin films covering the sand 
grains for its binding power emphasizes the necessity of a 
thorough circulation of hot air in the drying ovens. The 
core is really held together by a very thinly distributed paint, 
as it were. Hence also the great number and high percent- 



COREMAKING 

ages of drying adulterants used to "improve" a binder which 
would be most excellent if furnished pure. The solutions of 
gums and resins in petroleum, the asphaltic base residues of 
crude oil, and many other oils having a mixed mineral and 
vegetable origin come within this group. 

Selection of Binder 

The choice between liquid and dry binders lies in the nature 
of the core to be made. As previously stated, the liquid 
binders have a strong tendency to migrate to the surface. The 
thicker the core the more time necessary to bake it properly; 
and therefore the greater the quantity of binder collected at 
the skin of the core. The consequence is, that with heavy 
cores the situation may become so serious that not only will 
the molten iron flow over a surface as dense and impenetrable 
as stone, but in the charring of the binder considerable gas 
is formed which can only escape backward by "blowing" into 
the iron. The result is always a lost casting. On the other 
hand, with very thin cores, the oxidation of the oil is more 
rapid and thorough and migration of the oil is retarded. 
Liquid binders are therefore applied to very light section 
cores, whether these be large or small. Or, if used for heavier 
work, molding sand is added to help retard the oil migration 
mentioned. 

Dry binders, on the other hand, particularly if mixed with 
the sand as previously described, remain evenly distributed 
in the mass of the core and hence make it equally strong as 
well as permeable to air and gases throughout. The cus- 
tomary practice of using more dry binder than would be the 
case with the liquid varieties is readily shown to be illusive 
if the mixing is done properly. The binder after softening 
up all night on reworking in the morning is spread very thinly 
between the sand grains, and hence much less binder will 
give satisfactory results than where the mixture is used 
directly after putting the ingredients together. Indeed, the 
foundryman who avoids this extra labor simply damages his 
pocket in the long run by using an excessive quantity of binder 
or else losing castings. Further, by employing proper mixing 
machines he will get better metal surfaces and please his cus- 
tomers, besides saving on the binder used. 

Attention should be called to the mistake often made in 
mixing oil and paste binders. The latter are baked properly 
at about 350 degrees F., whereas linseed oil requires about 450. 
Either the full value of the oil will not have been obtained 
when baking for the paste binder, or the latter will be ruined 
if baking for the oil. 

10 



COREMAKING 

It will not be necessary to go into the details of core- 
making, such as filling the interior of large structures with 
coke, and making use of wax vent wires or tapers, the details 
of rodding and the use of arbors, grids, dryers for baking 
delicate cores, etc. Nor will the pasting of cores and slurry- 
ing the joints need special attention here, as foundry men are 
entirely familiar with these things, and if they know their 
business will give mighty close attention to them. What the 
average foundryman, however, needs badly and has little 
time or practice in working out, is a series of comparable 
tests on core binders based upon some unit of performance 
known to the trade generally. With this he can make his 
own test of the binder he contemplates purchasing, or is get- 
ting from time to time, and can figure out the relative econ- 
omy. Thus, if he has to pay a certain price for linseed oil, 
and can get equal strength and better results with another 
binder for less money, he would certainly be asleep if he 
did not take advantage of the situation. It is a mistake to 
keep on using a material that can be replaced by a more 
economical product if the latter gives equal or even better 
service. In the development of civilization there is room for 
everything and a material replaced in one industry finds its 
application in another, and probably to better advantage. 
The producer is not only constantly at work improving his 
product — otherwise his business dies of dry-rot — but he is 
also searching the world for new markets. The foundryman 
who does not do the same, will fall behind in the race. 

Core Tests 

To aid the foundryman in valuing core binders, a series 
of tests has been undertaken with characteristic representa- 
tives of the various classes of core binders discussed. To note 
the binding effect on the sand, two lines were followed. 
First, using an all silica sand — in this case "sea sand" was 
selected; and second, a mixture of this sea sand three parts, 
with one part of "Lumberton" molding sand. The molding 
sand was of medium grade of fineness. The all-silica sand 
grpup would correspond to the smaller range of cores, and 
the molding sand mixture to the heavier lines. 

The proportions of binder used were the following: One 
binder to fifteen sand, to illustrate the use of excessive quan- 
tities of binder. Next, one binder to twenty-five sand, to 
correspond with ordinary practice requiring fairly good 
strengths. Then, one binder to fifty sand, which would be 
called quite economical. Finally, one binder to one hundred 
sand, as an example of extreme economy and, unless great 

11 



COREMAKING 

care is used, rather beyond the Ime of safe practice. Indeed, 
when using linseed oil in this proportion it was impossible to 
get the cores to hold their shape when first made in the case 
of the molding sand mixture until this had first been tem- 
pered with water. The extremely small quantity of oil was 
absorbed by the clay content and prevented from exerting any 
adhesive action. Even in the case of the sea-sand, or all- 
silica material, the mixture had to remain unused for a while 
to allow the oxidation of the oil to begin. The cores could 
then be made and gave good results in spite of the minute 
quantity of oil used. 

Since all the binders other than linseed oil (and even this 
for the molding sand mixture) were used in connection with 
sufficient water to properly temper the sand, no trouble was 
experienced in making the cores in the usual manner of the 
shop. The core mixtures were all allowed to stand a while 
before using to aid in the attainment of uniformity of moisture 
and the proper softening of the dry binders. 

After drying and baking in an electric drying oven, the 
upper and rear portion of which was kept at the maximum 
temperature given in the tables, and the lower part above 
225 degrees F. — the core plates full of cores being shifted 
from the bottom upward during the process of baking — the 
cores made were subjected to a transverse breaking test. The 
cores were all 1 inch square and seven inches long. When 
placed on supports six inches apart and the load applied cen- 
trally, the figures given in the tables to follow were obtained. 
The temperatures may be taken as approximate only, but are 
near enough to be correct for practical purposes. The strength 
is given in pounds, and as a whole the tables show some very 
interesting figures. 

The binders used were "Hydrol," Molasses, Waste Sulphite, 
Liquor Concentrates, for the liquid binders. "Kordek," a 
dextrine and starch product made from com, and Flour 
(wheat) represented the paste binders. Rosin (used with 
equal parts of flour) was selected as a type for the gums. 
Linseed oil, representing the oils, completed the list. It may 
be stated that the linseed oil used was absolutely pure and 
obtained from the original producer. In the case of the rosin 
and flour cores, the binder proportions refer to half flour 
and half rosin in each case. Thus, for one part binder to 
fifty sand, this means one-half flour and one-half rosin to 
fifty sand. 

The tables of results now follow: 



12 



COREMAKING 

Linseed Oil 

Transverse strength of 1* square Cores broken on supports 6* apart 





All Core Sand 


Core Sand 3, Molding Sand 1 


Approximate 
Temperature 


Binder and Sand Proportions 


Binder and Sand Mixture 
Proportions 




, 




Degrees F. 


1 : 15 


1 :25 


1 :50 


1 : 100 


1 : 15 


1 : 25 


1 :50 


1 : 100 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


275 


13.73 


9.21 


4.44 


3.45 


17.75 


13.26 


10.30 


4.12 


300 


15.11 


11.90 


7.79 


3.99 


17.36 


14.19 


10.80 


4.14 


325 


15.18 


12.61 


11.55 


4.81 


22.79 


16.04 


13.73 


5.06 


350 


16.50 


15.18 


13.97 


4.77 


30.95 


17.62 


17.58 


5.52 


375 


19.89 


22.70 


20.83 


8.45 


35.05 


30.21 


23.54 


9.77 


400 


48.00 


32.27 


22.33 


9.02 


48.62 


32.67 


26.49 


11.80 


425 


55.39 


36.19 


36.93 


10.82 


72.93 


54.98 


36.10 


12.53 


450 


78.94 


49.99 


40,42 


11.07 


84.92 


60.43 


44.97 


12.68 


475 


45.63 


36.74 


25.26 


5.98 


47.26 


35.44 


37.73 


4.80 



**Kordek" 

Transverse strength of 1" square Cores broken on supports 6" apart. 



Approximate 

Temperature 

Degrees F. 


All Core Sand 
Binder and Sand Proportions 


Core Sand 3, Molding Sand 1 

Binder and Sand Mixture 

Proportions 


1 : 15 


1 :25 


1 :50 


1 : 100 


1 :15 


1 :25 


1: 50 


1 : 100 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


275 
300 
325 
350 
375 


12.18 
18.64 
21.45 
24.90 
15.25 


10.02 
14.76 
16.10 
18.79 
12.00 


4.50 
8.70 
11.27 
13.60 
9.83 


3.03 
7.16 
8.61 
9.82 
6.75 


26.28 
47.60 
60.39 
62.10 
19.14 


20.26 
37.40 
45.54 
45.77 
16.38 


10.12 
15.04 
17.54 
16.57 
8.43 


7.80 
11.70 
11.22 
12.24 

8.88 



13 



COREMAKING 

"Hydrol" 

Transverse strength of 1" square Cores broken on supports 6* apart. 



Approximate 
Temperature 
Degrees F. 


All Core Sand 
Binder and Sand Proportions 


Core Sand 3, Molding Sand 1 
Binder and Sand Mixture 
Proportions 


1 : 15 


1 :25 


1 : 50 


1 : 100 


1 : 15 


1 :25 


1 :50 


1 : 100 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


275 
300 
325 
350 

375 


22.60 
41.82 
55.44 
66.78 
57.08 


14.47 
17.36 
40.94 
47.20 
44.81 


8.44 
16.08 
21.77 
25.40 
22.10 


7.22 
10.70 
18.14 
20.53 
15.62 


38.15 
54.78 
62.28 
66.42 
59.11 


20.67 
25.08 
27.45 
33.66 
28.80 


9.33 
10.41 
15.90 
16.86 
14.70 


6.43 
7.00 
8.60 
10.22 
9.14 



Molasses 

Transverse strength of 1' square Cores broken on supports 6" apart. 



Approximate 

Temperature 

Degrees F. 


All Core Sand 
Binder and Sand Proportions 


Core Sand 3, Molding Sand 1 

Binder and Sand Mixture 

Proportions 


1 : 15 


1 :25 


1 :50 


1 : 100 


1 : 15 


1 :25 


1 :50 


1 : 100 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


275 
300 
325 
350 
375 


12.26 
18.77 
26.40 
26.80 
25.08 


8.12 
13.79 
15.60 
18.06 
14.07 


6.53 
7.92 
8.14 
9.94 
9.06 


5.17 
6.40 
7.19 
8.36 
8.27 


12.08 
15.14 
19.38 
22.70 
15.42 


6.58 
9.22 
11.74 
13.46 

8.72 


3.96 

5.87 
7.41 
8.20 
5.54 


3.59 
6.02 
6.40 
6.68 
4.70 



14 



COREMAKING 

Waste Sulphite Liquor Concentrates 

Transverse strength of 1* square Cores broken on supports 6* apart. 



Approximate 

Temperature 

Degrees F. 


All Core Sand 
Binder and Sand Proportions 


Core Sand 3. Molding Sand 1 

Binder and Sand Mixture 

Proportions 


1 : 15 


1 :25 


1 :50 


1 : 100 


1 : 50 


1 : 100 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


275 
300 
325 
350 

375 


2.10 
2.58 
3.47 
3.81 
2.90 


1.32 

1.75 
2.80 
3.17 
2.05 


0.76 
1.13 
1.87 
2.19 
1.41 


0.24 
0.98 
1.20 
1.52 
0.65 


8.20 
13.80 
14.52 
14.80 
13.14 


3.02 
5.44 
7.81 
8.33 
6.65 



Rosin and Flour 

Transverse strength of 1" square Cores broken on supports 6" apart. 



Approximate 
Temperature 


All Core Sand Core Sand 3, Molding Sand 1 
Binder and Sand Proportions Binder and Sand Mixture 

Proportions 


Degrees F. 


1 : 50 


1 : 50 




lbs. 


lbs. 


275 
300 
325 
350 


16.68 
23.76 
24.08 
21.16 


7.41 
16.84 
17.50 
17.18 



15 



COREMAKING 



Flour 

Transverse strength of 1" square Cores broken on supports 6' apart 



Approximate 
Temperature 


AH Core Sand 
Binder and Sand Proportions 


Core Sand 3, Molding Sand 1 

Binder and Sand Mixture 

Proportions 


Degrees F. 


1 :50 


1 :S0 




lbs. 


Ids. 


275 
300 
325 
350 


12.77 
16.20 

19. SO 
18.64 


8.98 
16.59 

17.40 
17.21 



Discussion of Tests 

A study of the figures shows the following characteristics: 
That there is a best temperature for baking in each case. 
This temperature, however, can go up and down for some 
distance before the value of the cores are seriously impaired. 
For linseed oil 450 degrees F. shows the best strength, the 
higher ranges of heat beginning to destroy the binding prop- 
erty. This is as it should be, for a core is supposed to be 
gradually charred by the iron which has set about it in the 
process of pouring the mold. The dextrine binder ("Kordek") 
exhibited this property best of all, the carbonization being 
quite pronounced as the heat was run above the 400° point. 

The water-soluble binders gave the best results at 350 de- 
grees F., but were sufficiently strong from 300° to 375°. The 
proper pomt, however, would lie between 350° and 375°, for at 
the lower temperatures, in spite of showing good strength, 
the subsequent softening of the core by moisture absorption 
was found to be a decided detriment for storage purposes or 
retention in a mold over-night. In the case of a core with 
flour, the proper temperature ran lower, as 325 degrees F. 
shows up best. The dextrine binder ("Kordek") could be 
baked as high as the water-soluble binders safely, and of all 
the binders tried gave the least trouble from sraoke and 
gases ; in fact, these were hardly noticeable. The^ flour cores, 
and especially those with linseed oil, were a positive torture 
to every one near during the baking process. 

Before discussing the differences between the all-silica sand 
results and those from the sand mixture containing molding 
sand, it may be stated that the strength of the latter mix- 
ture (sea-sand 3 and molding sand 1) without a binder was 
obtained first. The material was tempered with water just 

16 



COREMAKING 

as in making a sand heap for molding purposes (7l4 per cent, 
water being the amount used) ; the cores dried in the oven, 
and then tested just as for the regular series. The average 
strength, on cross-breaking, of a number of these dry sand 
bars was 0.80 lbs. This amount represents the strength im- 
parted to the core by the clay content of the molding sand 
used, but evidently has nothing to do with the effect of the 
clay on the binders used in the regular tests, as the results 
show widely varying figures. In the case of linseed oil, "Kor- 
dek," and particularly the waste sulphite liquor, the strength 
of the cores made with molding sand in the mixture is 
higher than without it. The other binders, however, show 
exactly the reverse. This would indicate that mixing various 
types of binders must be watched, as the results may be 
poorer than if each binder had been used alone. Clay is a 
binder of the colloid type, and in these tests it has helped the 
strength in some cases and hurt it in others. 

Taking the binders individually, there will be noticed that 
linseed oil gives astonishingly fine results. This is because 
it happens to be the pure article, little of which finds its way 
into the foundry today. The linseed oil — sea sand, 1 : SO core, 
no molding sand and baked at 450° F. has been taken as the 
standard for comparison and called 1.00. The other binder 
results as related to this standard will be shown in a table 
further down. 

The "Kordek" results, while not as strong as those with 
linseed oil, are quite high, justifying the prevailing impression 
that dextrine is one of the best of binders known, tfnques- 
tionably this binder would show far higher results in com- 
parison with the "linseed oil" that gets into the foundries 
today. The results in the table show that the strengths are 
good from 300 degrees F. up. The higher ranges are safest 
for the moisture problem, hence where cores are to be stored — 
the general custom being to make up to 10 per cent, over the 
order — the darker ones should be selected for that purpose. 

"Hydrol" exhibits remarkable strength for a liquid binder, 
much of this being probably due to the general tendency of 
wet binders to draw to the surface. With rapid baking this 
tendency is counteracted somewhat, and when the higher safe 
temperatures are reached, the cores stand up excellently. 
"Hydrol" being a corn sugar molasses is destined to replace the 
regular cane sugar molasses to a great extent, as it becomes 
better known. A glance at the tables will show the reason. 
At the present moment, with the imminent prospect of the 
withdrawal of the country's entire supply of molasses for 

17 



COREMAKING 



munition purposes, it will pay foundrymen to try out this 
comparatively recent candidate for foundry favor. 

In the case of molasses, the difference between the two lines 
of sand is not serious. On looking at the waste sulphite 
liquor figures, however, one is astonished to see how poor 
they are for the sea-sand cores and how improved the results 
become when molding sand is added to the mixture. 

The rosin and fiour, as also the flour alone, show up good 
strength. These are old-time binders known to every foun- 
dryman. Rosin is now too expensive to find its way into 
the core room, and flour is only good when in first-class con- 
dition. The flour used in these tests did not consist of 
"sweepings," but is genuine wheat flour bought at the ordi- 
nary grocery. This accounts for the unusually high results 
obtained from flour, and flour and rosin, as compared with 
Kordek. At the present moment, the use of flour in the 
foundry is out of the question, both on account of food regu- 
lations and for patriotic reasons. The flour figures, therefore 
are of only secondary interest. 

The table above mentioned, showing the relative value ot 
the binders, the cores being taken at their best baking tem- 
peratures, and the comparison made with linseed oil- 
sand 1 ; 50, as above stated, now follows : 

Table 

Comparative value of Core Binders. Linseed Oil-Core Sand 1:50 (at 450° F.) 









equals 1.00 














Baking 
Temper- 
ature 
Degrees 


All Core Sand 


Core Sand 3, Molding 
Sand 1 


Binder 


Binder and Sand 
Proportions 


Binder and Sand 
Mixture Proportions 




F. 


1 :15 


1 :25 


1 :50 


1:100 


1:15 


1:25 


1 :S0 


1:100 


Linseed OU. . 

Kordek 

Hydrol 

Molasses 

Sulphite Liq.. 
Rosin & Flour 
Flour 


450 
350 
350 
350 
350 
325 
325 


1.95 
0.62 
1.65 
0.66 
0.09 


1.23 
0.46 
1.17 
0.45 
0.08 


1.00 
0.34 
0.63 
0.25 
0.05 
0.60 
0.49 


0.27 
0.24 
0.57 
0.21 
0.04 


2.10 
1.53 
1.64 
0.56 


1.49 
1.13 
0.83 
0.44 


1.11 
0.41 
e.42 
0.20 
0.37 
0.43 
0.43 


0.31 
0.33 
0.25 
0.17 
0.21 




























Discussion of Table of Comparative Values 

A few words are necessary in regard to the 1 : IS and 1 : 
100 data. These are the exceptional cases in coremaking, 
the general run of work being found in a range from 1:2$ 
down to 1 ; 50 binder and sand. Nevertheless, in radiator 

18 



COREMAKING 



work or where cores must be readUy destroyed and shaken 
out in cleaning, the very dilute mixtures of strong binders 
find ready application. 

Foundries are not apt to buy flour in competition with 
bakeries, and rosin is too expensive. The smoke from flour 
after pouring is now subject to sanitary code regulations. 
Hence, in selecting a binder, the choice would be made from 
pure linseed oil, if obtainable at reasonable cost, Kordek, 
^ hydrol and molasses, for cores made without molding sand; 
and the waste sulphite liquors in addition to the above list 
for cores made with molding sand. Taking into consideration 
the cost of pure linseed oil and the trouble from moisture ab- 
sorption on the part of the water-soluble binders, the dex- 
trine binder, Kordek, remains as best adapted for the gen- 
eral run of cores. 

For the practical range of binders (1:25 down to 1:50) 
pure linseed oil still holds the palm for strength, but after 
this it will be noted that Kordek and Hydrol give the best 
results for the dry and wet binders, respectively, both in 
straight sand and molding sand mixtures. This is easily 
understood when it is remembered that Kordek is essentially 
a dextrinized corn flour, while hydrol is a more highly concen- 
trated corn sugar molasses than the regular cane sugar mo- 
lasses of commerce. They bear out the statement previously 
made that modem developments run in the direction of 
eliminating the unessential portions of binders to save mate- 
rials, costs, and subsequent baking difficulties and annoyances. 

For weights and costs the following figures may be of value 
to the foundry man in comparing the dry and wet binders. 
The determinations were made on the actual materials used 
in the tests in question. 



Material 


Specific 
Gravity 


Weight per 
gallon in 
pounds 


Water.... 

Linseed Oil 


1.000 
0.934 
1.258 
1.263 
1.401 


8.34 
7.79 


Waste Sulphite Liquor Cone .... 

Molasses 

Hydrol 


10.49 
10.53 
11 68 







A final matter of interest may be given as the result of 
subjecting all the cores made to a microscopic examination. 
The structure of the cores of both sand mixtures was seen 

19 



COREMAKING 

to be extremely open — as it should be for proper venting. 
The grains of sand being rounded in a measure were forced 
into contact with each other at their flatter surfaces, and 
here the core binder cemented them together — a thin film 
for the poor mixtures and an "I" shaped cement like joint 
for the rich ones. It was further observed that for both wet 
and dry binders each grain of sand was coated with the binder 
all over its surface, showing that the bulk of the binder is 
wasted in coremaking. 

A further interesting observance was that the clay content 
of the molding sand used in the mixtures for half the tests 
evidently united with the binder by reason of the common 
vehicle — water — and separated from the sand grains suffi- 
ciently to form part of the cementing bond between them. This 
may explain why some binders gave stronger results with 
molding sand additions and others gave weaker ones. Some 
binders may have been absorbed by the clay to the detri- 
ment of their adhesiveness, whereas others may have been 
thickened by the clay addition and worked into points be- 
tween the sand grains rather than spreading evenly over 
them. 

The general impression resulting from the rather elaborate 
series of tests above described would seem to be that the core 
room presents problems far more serious than is generally sup- 
posed. In estimating on castings to be made the foundryman 
always considers the amount of core work first. If he had 
his core room equipped as it should be, his binders and mix- 
tures on a rational, economical and sound basis for strength, 
venting quality, etc., he would not have to worry so much 
about the costs for that particular end of his shop. The labor 
end is simple as compared with the molding floor, but the 
very ignorance of the fundamentals in coremaking has caused 
the core room to be the unreasonably expensive end of the 
foundry industry. 



20 



Tables 



21 



TABLES 



1 








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22 



TABLES 



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3.00 
2.85 
3.75 
3.25 








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Castines 




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23 



TABLES 
Weight of Cast Iron 



Variety 


Specific Lbs. per 
Gravity cu. ft. 


Coarse-grained gray pig iron 

Coarse-grained gray cast iron 

Fine-grained cast iron 


6.80 
7.00 
7.20 
7.64 
7.69 
7.80 

7.10 
7.50 

6.79 
7.50 
7.07 
7.68 
7.06 
7.52 
7.15 
7.53 
7.06 
7.52 


425 
437 
449 


Mottled pig iron 


477 


White pig iron 


480 


White, charcoal, high P. cast iron . . 
Average gray iron 


487 
443 


Average white iron 


468 


Very open gra;^ coke pig iron 

This remelted in air furnace 

Cold-blast coke pig iron 

This remelted in air furnace 

Gray charcoal pig iron for malleable 

This remelted in air furnace 

Gray charcoal pig iron — sand cast. 
This iron — machine cast 




Gray interior of chilled roll 

Chilled portion near surface 


... 



From Moldenke, "Principles of Iron Founding." 

Melting Points of Cast Iron, Brass, etc. 



Name 


Composition 


Melting 

Point 

Degrees F. 


Authority 


Brass 


CopF>er 95 Zinc 5 


1,960 
1,930 
1,880 
1,830 
1,795 
1,725 
1,660 
1,635 

1,920 
1,840 
1.760 
1,635 


Shepherd 




« 90 "10 




« 85 « 15 


« 




« 80 ** 20 


a 




« 75 "25 


u 




« 70 "30 


a 




« 65 "35 


u 




« 60 "40 


u 


Bronze 


Copper 95 Tin 5 


Shepherd 




" 90 " 10 






" 85 " 15 


u 




" 80 "20 


u 



24 



TABLES 
Melting Points of Cast Iron, Brass, etc. (Continued) 



Name 


Composition 


Melting 

Point 

Degrees F. 


Authority 


Cast Iron 


Averace erav 


2,260 
2,100 

482 

411 

370 

340 

356 

2,685 

2,650 

2,570 


Moldenke 




« white 


« 


Solder 
Soft 


Tin 1 Le^d 3 


Brannt 




« 1 « 2 


M 




« 1 « 1 


U 




« 2 " 1 


U 




« 3 " 1 


« 


Steel 


Low carbon 


Le Chatelier 




Medium carbon 


M 




High carbon 


(( 



From Various Sources. See also Fusible metals. Physics and Chemistry 
of Foundry metals, etc. 



Contraction Allowance for Various Metals and Alloys 


Name 


Contraction 

in Sixty-fourths 

Inch per Foot 


Ferrous Metals: — 

Steel 


16 


White Iron 


16 to 12 


Mottled Iron 


9 


Light Gray Iron 


9 to 6 


Medium Gray Iron 


8 


Malleable Cast Iron 


8 


Columns of Cast Iron 


7 


Cylinder and Engine Frames (large) 
Heavy Gray Iron 


6 
5 


Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys: 

Aluminum 


14 


Copper 


14 ^ 


Brass 


14 to 12 


Bronze 


12 ^ 


Zinc 


12 


Lead 


12 


Tin 


10 


Bismuth 


5 







From MoUUnbe, "Praaia o/ Iron Founding" (adf€uc4 sfuxts). 
25 



TABLES 
Estimating Weight of Castings from Pattern 



Material of Pattern 



Multiply 


Sp. Gr. of 


Weight of 


Material 


Pattern by 




17.5 


0.40 


17.0 


0.42 


15.8 


0.45 


14.8 


0.48 


14.2 


0.50 


13.0 


0.55 


11.6 


0.61 


11.1 


0.64 


11.0 


0.65 


10.9 


0.66 


10.4 


0.68 


10.0 


0.70 


10.0 


0.72 


10.0 


0.72 


9.6 


0.74 


9.2 


0.78 


s.s 


0.85 


7.3 


0.97 


5.1 


1.40 


3.1 


2.27 


2.60 


2.80 


1.00 


7.10 


0.97 


7.29 


0.85 


8.37 


0.83 


8.50 


0.82 


8.67 


0.63 


11.35 



Cedar. 

Red Wood 

Poplar 

Cypress 

White Pine 

Birch 

Yellow Pine 

Ash 

Cherry 

Chestnut 

Maple 

Black Walnut 

Elm 

Beech 

Red Oak 

White Oak 

Hard Mahogany 

Hard Rubber 

Red Fibre 

Plaster Paris 

Aluminum (cast) . . . 

Zinc 

Tin 

Brass (yellow) , 

Copper 

Bronze (gun metal) , 
Lead 



From Moldenke, "Practice of Iron Founding" {advance sheets). 



26 



TABLES 
Cupola Melting Loss 



Material 


Per Cent. Loss 


Machine-cast Pig Iron 


0.30 


Sand-cast Pig Iron 


1.00 


Car Wheels 


2.00 


First Quality Machinery Scrap 


2.50 


Light Machinery Scrap 


3 50 


Stove Plate Scrap 


8.00 



From Moldenke, "Principles of Iron Founding.' 



Composition of Molding Sands 
Rational Analyses — ^Averages 



Region 



Quartz 


Clay 




Substance 


58.82 


18.99 


64.53 


24.77 


71.02 


23.79 


64.10 


24.36 


67.21 


21.99 


81.38 


15.49 


70.82 


16.65 


77.37 


17.94 


74.53 


21.11 


65.53 


21.73 



Feldspar 



New York (Albany) , 

Kentucky 

Ohio.... 

Missouri 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Illinois 

Georgia 

Tennessee 

Grand Average 



22.16 
10.69 

5.17 
11.54 
10.79 

3.13 
12.53 

4.69 

4.36 

12.74 



Recalculated for Ultimate Composition: 

Silica 84.26 

Alumina (and Iron Oxide) 13.59 

Lime, Alkalies, etc 2.15 

From Moldenke, "Principles of Iron Founding." 



27 



TABLES 
Rational Melting Capacities of Cupolas 



Cupola Diameter, 


Tons melted 


Cu. ft. blast required 


inside lining (inchess) 


per hour 


per minute 


18 


0.5 


250 


24 


1.5 


750 


30 


3 


1,500 


36 


4.5 


2,250 


42 


6 


3,000 


48 


8 


4,000 


54 


10 


5,000 


60 


13 


6.500 


66 


16 


8,000 


72 


19 


9,500 


78 


22 


11,000 


84 


26 


13,000 


90 


30 


15,000 



Blast volume required to melt one ton of iron is taken at 
30,000 cu. ft. 

To get speed of Positive Blower, divide the cu. ft. blast 
required per minute by the cu. ft. air of blower per revo- 
lution. 

From Moldenke, "Principles of Iron Founding." 



Composition of Various Alloys 


by Name 


Name 


l-r 






1 


ii 


1 


Other Metals 


Admiralty Metal . . 

Aich's Metal 

Ajax Metal 

Aluminum-copper 
Alloy 


87.0 
60.0 
81.2 

7.5 


5.0 

38.2 


8.0 










. 




1.8 




11.0 


7.8 






92.5 
65.0 






Aluminum-zinc 
Alloy 


35.0 
31.0 

io.'o 

20.0 
34.0 
27.0 
10.2 
33.3 
40.0 










Arguzoid 

Arsenic Bronze 

Bath Metal 

Bell Metal 

Bobierre's Metal.. . 

Bristol Brass 

Camelia Metal 

Cartridge Brass 


48.5 
82.2 
80.0 
80.0 
66.0 
72.8 
70.2 
66.7 
60.0 
60.0 








Nickel 20.5 


10.0 


7.0 






Arsenic 0.8 





















* 








■ 4.3 


0.2 

14.8 










0.5 


























Nickel 40.0 

















23 



TABLES 



Composition of Various Alloys by Name (Continued) 


Name 


1 










1 


Other Metals 


Cornish Bronze. . . . 


77.8 
65.0 
76.8 
57.5 
64.0 

3.3 
76.0 

5.0 

7.0 

71.9 
60.0 
50.0 
75.8 
88.0 
64.5 
55.7 

94.0 
12.5 
10.0 

57.0 


"id.o 
■46.0" 

30.0 
85.4 
24.0 
79.0 

92.0 

24.9 
38.5 
29.0 

■ '2.0 

32.5 
42.7 

6.0 
87.5 
85.0 

43.0 


9.6 
5.0 
10.6 


12.6 
















Damascus Bronze.. 


12.6 








Delta Metal 




2.5 






5.0 
11.0 






Nickel 1 .0 


Die Casting Alloy.. 




0.3 






Dutch Alloy. ...... 






Fenton's Alloy 


16.0 










Fontaineinoreau's 






1.0 




French Brass (potin 
iaune) 


1.2 


2.0 






Gedge's Metal 




1.5 




German Silver 








Nickel* ' 21.6 




8.6 

10.0 

0.3 

1.0 


15.6 








Gun Metal (U. S.). 










2.7 








Harrington Bronze . 

Jewelers' Gilding 

Alloy 





0.6 




Lap Allov 


















5.0 






Macht's Yellow 
Metal 
















80.0 
0.4 


1.5 




Manganese Bronze. 
Monel Metal 


58.5 

29.5 
66.7 
60.0 
62.0 

90.0 

3.0 
79.7 
93.6 
64.0 
50.0 
75.0 
89.5 

85.0 
5.0 
66.7 
55.0 
90.7 
97.0 
58.2 
85.0 
82.5 


41.0 





0.1 


Manganese to 

deoxidize 
Nickel 69.0 


Mosaic Gold 


33.3 
40.0 
37.0 

10.0 

35.0 

' 6.'4' 
30.0 










Muntz's Metal. . . . 












Naval Brass 


1.0 










Oreide (French 
Gold) 










Parson's White 
Brass 


62.0 
10.0 












9.5 






Phosphorus 0.8 


Pinchbeck 






Plastic Bronze 


5.0 








Nickel 1 .6 




50.0 








Prince's Metal 


25.0 
10.3 

10.0 
90.0 

42.3 
8.3 
2.0 
39.5 
15.0 
17.5 










Red Metal 


5.0 


0.2 








Similor (Mannheim 
Gold) 








Sorrel's Alloy 






5.0 




Speculum Metal . . . 


33.3 
0.9 








Sterro Metal 






1.8 




Talmi Gold 






Gold 1 .0 


Tissier's Metal 










Arsenic 1 .0 


Tobin Bronze 


2.3 










Tombac 










Toumay's Alloy... . 

























From various sources. 
Alloys, etc. 



See also tables of Antimony Alloys, Fusible 



29 



TABLES 



Composition of Various Brasses by Color 



Color 

Bluish gray 

Ash gray 

Silver white 

Pale yellow 

Yellow 

Red yellow 

Yellow red 

Orange 



Zinc 




From various sources. 



Brass Solders 



Copper 


Zinc 


Tin 


Lead 


Color 


Properties 


58 


42 




.. 


Red Yellow 


Very strong 


53 


47 






u u 


Strong 


50 


50 






u u 


Medium 


33 


67 






White 


Easily Fusible 


44 


50 


4 


2 


Gray 




57 


28 


15 




White 


White Solder 



From Iliorn's "Mixed Metals. 





Fusible 


Alloys 








Name 


Melting 
Point 


Tin 


Bis- 
muth 


Lead 


Cad- 
mium 


Fusible Alloy 

Lipowitz's Alloy . . . 

Wood's Alloy 

Fusible Alloy 

Onion's Alloy 

Newton's Alloy 

Clichet Alloy 

Rose's Alloy 


150° F. 

158°F. 
160° F. 
187° F. 
197° F. 
202° F. 
221°F. 
230° F. 


1 

4 
2 
4 
2 
3 
2 
1 


4 
15 

5 

"s 

8 

5 
2 


2 
8 
4 
2 
3 
5 
2 
1 


1 
3 
2 
2 



From Hiom's "Mixed Metals. 



30 



TABLES 
Antimony Alloys 



Name 


1 

< 


5 


G 




a 

N 


1 


1 


s 
G 

PQ 


.a 
2: 


Tvpe Metal 


30.0 
25.0 

18.4 
18.2 
16.0 
16.0 
16.0 
14.0 
12.1 
11.8 
11.7 
10.0 
9.3 
8.3 

8.0 
7.1 
7.0 
4.0 


60.0 

80.0 

'79.0 
76.0 
79.0 

87.9 
83.7 
88.3 

■83."4" 
■92.0 


10.0 
25.0 

68.5 
5.0 
8.0 
5.0 

80.0 












Tutania Metal 

American Anti-friction 
Metal 


9.0 

1.0 
10.0 


16.0 
' *3.3 


0.6 


25.0 





Minofor Metal 






Linotype Metal 








Monotype Metal 












Magnolia Metal 












Ashberry Metal 


1.0 


2.0 






3.0 


White Metal 








Stereotype Metal 

Anti-friction Metal 


4.0 




0.5 









Algiers Metal 


90.0 

81.5 

8.3 

81.5 

88.5 

90.0 

4.0 













Hard Babbitt Metal. . . 





9.2 








Metallic Packing 








Genuine Soft Babbitt 
Metal 


' 0.9 


4.0 
3.5 
3.0 








Queen's Metal 






■ * * * * 


Britania Metal 








Electrotype Metal 





















From various sources. 



31 



TABLES 
Copper-Tin Alloys 







ob 


Cop- 


Tin 




per 






100 





8.921 


49 




8.564 


25 




8.649 


13 




8.694 


10 






9 




8.669 


8 




8.353 


7 




8.648 


6 






5 




8.462 


4 




.... 


3 




8.870 


7 




8.932 


?. 




8.907 


3 

1 




8.539 
8.790 


4 




8.300 


2 




8.132 


1 




7.835 


1 




7a543 


1 




7.490 


t 


10 


7.472 


1 


12 


7.417 


1 


89 


7.305 





100 


7.293 



Color 



Tensile 
Strength 
Lbs. per 
sq.in. 



Authority 



Use 



Red 

Reddish yellow 

u u 

Grayish yellow 

u n 

a u 

Yellowish red 
Reddish white 



32,000 
28,500 
32,093 
26,860 
26,011 
31.100 
44,071 
34,048 
35,739 



White 
Dark gray 
Bluish white 
Grayish white 



5,585 
2,536 
1,120 


' 2.820 
6,775 
3,798 
6,450 



6,096 
3.650 
3,500 



Marchand 
Thurston 



Muschenbroek 
Thurston 
Wade 
Thurston 
Muschenbroek 
Mallet 

Muschenbroek 
Riche 
Thurston 
« 

Mallet 

Wade 

Riche 

Thurston 

Tomson 



Wade 
Thurston 



Cast copper 



Ordnance 
Gun Metal 



Brittle 
Mirrors 



Bell Metal 



Condensed from Hiorn's "Mixed Metals.' 



32 



TABLES 



Copper-Zinc Alloys 



Cop- 
per 


Zinc 


Speci- 
fic 

Grav- 
ity 


Color 


Tensile 
Strengh 

lbs. 

per 
sq. in. 


Authority 


Use 


10 
9 
8 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

2 

1 
3 
5 
2 
9 
5 
11 
3 
4 
5 
8 


8.605 
8.607 
8.633 
8.587 
8.710 
8.673 
8.650 

8.379 
8.392 

8.363 

8.291 
8.171 
7.974 
7.859 
7.811 
7.766 
7.882 
7.449 
7.371 
7.136 
7.108 


Red yellow 

« a 
u u 

u it 

u « 

Yellow red 
Yellow 

Silver white 
« « 

« « 
Ash gray 

« <c 
« « 
Bluish gray 


27.104 
25,760 
28.672 
29.568 
31.584 
32,600 
32.928 

29.344 
37,800 

50,450 

30,990 

* 2,656 

' l',774 

' l',792 


Mallet 

« 

Thurston 

Mallet 
Thurston 

« 
a 

Riche 
Thurston 
Millet 
Thurston 

MiUet 
Thurston 


Tombac 
Oreide 


7 




6 




5 




4 
3 


Ductile 
Metal 


2 
3 
1 


Common 
Brass 

Forging 
Metal 


2 
3 




1 

4 
2 


Brass Solder 
Brittle 


4 

1 
1 
1 
1 


Brittle 

« 

Buttons 
Brittle 



Condensed from morn's "Mixed Metals.' 



Combustion Data for Gases 



Fuel 


Lbs. Oxygen 

for 1 Lb. 

Fuel 


Lbs. Air 

for 1 Lb. 

Fuel 


Cu. Ft. Oxygen 

for 1 Cu. Ft. 

Fuel 




8.00 

4.00 

3.43 

3.077 

2.66 

1.33 


34.632 
17.316 
14.848 
13.320 
11.517 
5.759 


5 


Methane 


2.0 
3.0 
2.5 


Ethylene 




Carbon to CO2 

Carbon to CO. . . . 




... 



From Moldenke, "Principles of Iron Founding.' 

33 



TABLES 
Flame Temperatures 



Fuel 



Carbon to Carbon Monoxide 

Carbon to Carbon Dioxide 

Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide 

Hydrogen to Water-vapor 

Methane to Carbon Dioxide and 

Water-vapor 

Ethylene to Carbon Dioxide and 

Water-vapor 

Acetylene to Carbon Dioxide and 

Water-vapor 



Combustion in 

Air 
(Le Chatelier) 



2,335° F. 
3,700° F. 
3,810° F. 
3.585° F. 

3,360° F. 

3,735° F. 

4,390° F. 



Combustion in 
Oxygen . 
(after Richards) 



6,045° F. 
6,685° F. 
5,400° F. 
5.775° F. 

5.760° F. 

6,450° F. 

8,030° F. 



From Moldenke, "Principles of Iron Founding.' 



Physical and Chemical Data of Foundry Metals 



Name 


Symbol 


Atomic 
Weight 


Specific 
Gravity 


Lbs. per 
Cu. Ft. 


Meltixig 

Point 
DegreesF 




Al 

Sb 

Cd 

Cr 

Cu 

Au 

Fe 

Pb 

Mg 

Mn 

Mo 

Ni 

Pt 

Ag 

Sn 

Ti 

W 

V 

Zn 


27 
120 
112 

52 

63.6 
197 

56 
207 

24 

55 

96 

58.5 
195 
108 
119 

48 
184 

51 

65 


2.56 
6.71 
8.60 
6.50 
8.93 

19.32 
7.86 

11.31 
1.74 
8.00 
8.60 
8.60 

21.50 

10.53 
7.29 
3.54 

19.10 
5.50 
7.15 


165 
419 
536 
286 
556 

1.206 
485 
710 
109 
475 
540 
537 

1.330 
657 
459 
221 

1.200 
343 
440 


1.255 


Antimnnv 


1.165 




610 


Chromium 


2.740 




1.980 ^ 


GM .::'/.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 


1.945 




2.770 *i 


Lead 


620 * 


Magnesium 


1.200 


Xianpanese. 


2.235 




4,530 


Nickel 


2,640 




3,190 




1.760 


Tin 


450 




3.360 




5.430 


Vanadium 


3.180 


Zinc 


785 - 







From various sources. 



34 



TABLES 

DIGEST OF SCRAP SPECIFICATIONS ADOPTED 
BY THE AMERICAN FOUNDRYMEN'S 
ASSOCIATION 
General: All scrap to be bought and sold on basis of net 
ton of 2,000 lbs. Variations in weights subject to regu- 
lations of authorized weighing associations operating in 
territory of delivery. On rejection, if not up to specifica- 
tions, seller to pay demurrage and return freight. 

CAST IRON SCRAP: No. 1 Machinery Scrap. To 

be first quality material, every piece to show evidence 
of machining. No piece over 100 lbs. and not over 
24" long or wide. No railroad or other classes of scrap 
mentioned hereafter, or any burnt iron will be accepted 
under machinery scrap. No. 1 heavy — pieces over 1" 
section. No. 1 Medium — between Yz" and 1" section. 
No. 1 Light — under Y^." section. 

No. 2 Machinery Scrap. To be first quality material every 
piece to show evidence of machining. Shall be in un- 
broken state. Same restrictions and section divisions 
as in No. 1 Machinery. 

No. 3 Rough Scrap. Cast scrap such a^ columns, pipe, 
plates and rough castings broken to cupola size — no 
piece over 100 lbs. and over 24" long or wide. Section 
divisions into Heavy, Medium and Light as in No. 1 
Machinery. 

No. 4 Rough Scrap. Pieces in unbroken state. Quality 
requirements and section divisions as in No. 3 Rough 
Scrap. 

No. 5 Machinery Scrap. Burnt machinery scrap of mis- 
cellaneous character, but no burnt material of other 
classifications. 

No. 1 Stove Plate Scrap. Best class clean stove plate. 
Free from malleable iron and steel parts. No grates, 
burnt iron of any description, railroad, or other classes 
of scrap permitted. 

No. 2 Stove Plate Scrap. All stove parts not in No. 1. No 
burnt material of any description, railroad or other class 
scrap permitted. 

No. 3 Stove Plate Scrap. Burnt stove parts only. 

No. 1 Agricultural Scrap. Cast iron parts of agricultural 
machinery, free from steel, malleable iron, chilled iron 
(plow points) and all burnt iron. 

No. 2 Agricultural Scrap. Chilled iron parts of agri- 
cultural machinery, free from steel, malleable iron and 
burnt iron of all kinds. 

3S 



TABLES 

No. 1 Railroad Scrap. Only chilled M. C. B. car wheels. 
No. 2 Railroad Scrap. Miscellaneous cast iron car wheels 

not in No, 1. 
No. 3 Railroad Scrap. Only gray iron brake shoes free 

from steel backs and inserts. 
No. 4 Railroad Scrap. Steel back and insert brake shoes 

of driver and car types. No brake shoes of No. 3 

classification. 
No. 5 Railroad Scrap. Railroad burnt iron of every 

description. 
No. 6 Railroad Scrap. Unburnt railroad grate bars and 

grate bar rests. Also journal boxes with steel parts re- 
moved. 
No. 1 Radiator Scrap. Broken radiator casting free from 

scale, rust and excessive corrosion. All steel malleable 

and other parts removed. 
No. 2 Radiator Scrap. Unbroken radiator castings. Same 

restrictions as in No. 1. 

MALLEABLE CAST IRON SCRAP. All material under 

this classification must have gone through the regular 

annealing process for malleable castings. 
Automobile Malleable Scrap. Only malleable cast iron 

automobile parts free from steel and gray iron parts. 

No railroad malleable, pipe fittings, agricultural parts, 

etc., permitted. 
Railroad Malleable Scrap. Only railroad malleable 

No. 1 — pieces not over ^" section or 24" long or wide. 

No. 2— pieces between ^" and ^^" section and not 

over 24" long or wide. No. 3 — ^pieces over ^" section 

and over 24" long or wide. No agricultural malleable, 

pipe fittings, etc., permitted. 
Agricultural Malleable Scrap. Malleable cast iron parts 

of agricultural machinery. Free from steel and cast iron. 

Same section divisions as in railroad malleable scrap. 

No pipe fittings, valves, etc., permitted. 
Miscellaneous Malleable Scrap. Valves, pipe fittings and 

all other malleable scrap not covered in previous classifi- 
cations. 
HEAVY OPEN HEARTH STEEL SCRAP. Must not 

include pieces that are covered with excessive rust or show 

serious corrosion. 
No. 1 Heavy Structural Steel Scrap. All Structural 

shapes %" and over. Not over 5 feet long and 18" 

wide, charging box size. No piece over 25 lbs. Free 

from all iron. 

36 



TABLES 

No. 2 Heavy Structural Steel Scrap. All structural 

shapes 5^" and over. Pieces over 5 feet long and 18" 

wide. No piece over 600 lbs. Free from all iron and 

bent and twisted pieces. 
No. 3 Steel Rails. Standard sections SO lbs. and over. Not 

over 5 feet long or 18" wide. No frogs, switches, guard 

rails and crossing rails. 
No. 4 Steel Rails. Standard sections under SO lbs. Other- 
wise same as No. 3 Steel Rails. 
No. 5 Steel Rails. Standard sections SO lbs. and over, not 

cut to charging box size. Otherwise same as No. 3 

Steel Rails. 
No. 6 Steel Rails. Standard sections under SO lbs. and 

not cut to charging box size. Otherwise same as No. 3 

Steel Rails. 
No. 7 Heavy Steel Scrap. Guard rails, switches, crossing 

rails and frogs. Cut apart to charging box size. No 

iron plates. 
No. 8 Heavy Steel Scrap. No. 7 material over S feet long 

and 24" wide. No bent, curved and twisted pieces. 
No. 9 Heavy Steel Scrap. Locomotive drivers, engine 

truck and coach tires 36" and over inside diameter. 
No. 10 Heavy Steel Scrap. Miscellaneous steel tires under 

36" inside diameter. 
No. 11 Steel Tires. Nos. 9 and 10 broken to charging box 

size. 
No. 12 Heavy Steel Scrap. Miscellaneous mild steel cast- 
ings between 2S and 300 lbs. Charging box size and 

containing ho malleable or cast iron. 
No. 13 Heavy Steel Scrap. Cast Steel couplers, knuckles, 

coupler heads and drawbars. Free from iron yokes, etc. 

LIGHT OPEN HEARTH STEEL SCRAP. Must be free 

from excessive rust or corrosion. 
No. 1 Light Steel Scrap. Steel springs not under ^" 

thickness or diameter. Elliptical springs cut apart. No 

plates permitted. 
No. 2 Light Steel Scrap. Miscellaneous steel shapes, crop 

ends, fish plates, etc. Not over 25 lbs. Charging box 

size. No bundle scrap or iron. 
No. 3 Light Steel Scrap. Turnings and borings of wrought 

iron and mild steel. Free from malleable iron, brass, high 

carbon steel borings and other metals. Clean and free 

from dirt and lumps. 
No. 4 Light Steel Scrap. Turnings and borings of high 

carbon steel with same restrictions as in No. 3. 

37 



TABLES 

No. 5 Light Steel Scrap. Bundled scrap and light steel 
scrap under Y^" section. No galvanized or tinned mate- 
rial permitted. Charging box size. 

No. 6 Light Steel Scrap. Miscellaneous cast steel not 
covered in above classifications. Between 5 and 25 lbs. 
Free from malleable and cast iron. 

CONVERTER STEEL SCRAP. Must be free from exces- 
sive rust or corrosion and not over 24" wide or long 
(cupola size). 

No. 1 Converter Scrap. Mild open hearth scrap 25 to 
200 lbs., structural shapes, forgings, crop ends. 

No. 2 Converter Scrap. Open hearth high carbon scrap 
and hard steel rails. Between 25 and 200 lbs. 

No. 3 Converter Scrap. Miscellaneous mild steel castings 
between 25 and 200 lbs. Free from malleable and cast 
iron. 

No. 4 Converter Scrap. Miscellaneous mild steel castings 
under 25 lbs. Free from malleable and cast iron. 

No. 5 Converter Scrap. Miscellaneous steel tires, broken. 

No. 6 Converter Scrap. Mild open hearth steel scrap, 
punchings, etc. Pieces between 5 and 25 lbs. Clean. 

No. 7 Converter Scrap. Steel Springs not under ^" thick 
or diameter. Elliptical Springs cut apart. 

CRUCIBLE STEEL SCRAP. SLx classifications. 

ELECTRIC FURNACE STEEL SCRAP. Eleven classifi- 
cations. 
The above are of interest to a very limited number of foun- 
dries, and are therefore omitted in this digest. 
From "Transactions of American Foundrymen' s Association." 

Factors of Safety in Cast Iron Construction 



A dead load 

A live or varying load of one kind , 

Equal alternate stresses of different kind 
Varying loads and shocks 



4 

6 

10 

15 



From Unwin, "Elements of Machine Design." 

PREPARATION OF SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS 

The following methods of preparing samples for analysis 
are intended to aid the Foundryman in getting reliable results 
for his mixture making and melting practice. Unless the sample 
is representative of the shipment, the analysis is practically 
worthless. 

38 



TABLES 

Pig Iron 

Select one pig at random from each 4 tons of iron — 10 
pigs representing a unit for sampling (40 tons, or the usual 
car load). Cleanse the surface of each pig with a stiff wire 
brush or in any manner which will remove all loose sand and 
prevent introducing deleterious matter into the sample as it 
is taken. 

Remove the skin with an emery wheel down to clean 
metal at the center of the upper face of each pig, and brush 
off the surface carefully. Take drillings with a J4" twist 
drill, from top to bottom of each pig, starting from the 
center of the cleared spot and stopping when the point of the 
drill appears below. One hole only in each pig. 

Use suitable precautions to prevent escape of fine particles 
during the drilling. To do this best, clamp a disk of clean 
sheet metal on the pig after the skin has been removed. 
The disk shall have a hole in the center just large enough to 
receive the drill. Most of the drillings will accumulate on top 
of the disk and can be brushed off after the drill has been 
withdrawn. The rest is caught by turning the pig bottom 
side up on a receptacle to collect what remained in the hole. 

Cast Iron 

In accordance with the Specifications for gray iron cast- 
ings, of the American Society for Testing Materials, two 
standard test bars are cast from each heat at the beginning, 
and again three at the end of pouring. One bar from each 
set having been broken, one end of each next the fracture is 
thoroughly cleaned and the outer skin removed to clean 
metal a sufficient distance back. The piece is now put into 
the lathe or milling machine and chips taken across the whole 
face of the bar until not less than ^ lb. has been removed. 
Take same amount from each of the other bars. Clamp so 
that suitable devices for collecting the sample can be at- 
tached, and run machine slow enough to prevent loss of fine 
particles. Mix all chips together well and send to laboratory 
for analysis. 

Coke 

Take sample from exposed surface of car, by knocking off 
with hammer a piece approximately the size of a walnut, every 
18" along three lines running from one end of car to the 
other One line through centre of car, and other two lines 
2 feet from respective sides of the car. With hammer 18" 
long, measurements are simple by turning it over and break- 
ing off a piece where the head rests each time and regardless 
of appearance of coke. 

39 



TABLES 

Total quantity to be not less than 2 pecks. Crush on 
steel plate with hammer or sledge, avoiding all rubbing action. 
Pass through screen having 4 meshes to linear inch. Mix 
sample on strong, closely woven cloth about S feet square, 
by raising four sides of cloth successively and rolling coke 
over to mix well. Lift four corners of cloth to make conical 
pile. Flatten apex of pile and divide into quarters of equal 
size. Remove two diagonally opposite quarters and brush 
space clean. Mix remaining two quarters again, cone the pile, 
quarter and discard two diagonally opposite quarters, and 
repeat until sample remaining runs not less than S lbs. Put 
in suitable container and ship to laboratory for analysis. 

When a moisture determination is to be made a special 
method is used, the above being for the ordinary constituents 
only. 

From "Yearbook American Society for Testing Materials" 



40 



TABLES 

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR GRAY IRON 

CASTINGS 

(Digest) 

(1) Cupola Metal, unless air furnace iron is specified par- 

ticularly. 

(2) Chemical properties: Light and Medium castings, sul- 

phur not over 0.10%. Heavy castings, sulphur not over 
0.12%. 

(3) Classifications: Light castings have less than J^" sec- 

tion. Heavy castings have sections 2" thick and over. 
Medium castings are between these. 

(4) Physical Properties: Transverse test. Minimum breaking 

strength of "Arbitration Bar" shall be: Light castings, 
2,500 lbs.; medium castings, 2,900 lbs.; heavy castings, 
3,300 lbs. Deflection in no case under 0,10 in. 
Tensile test (where specified) : Light castings, not less 
than 18,000 lbs. per sq. in.; medium castings, 21,000 lbs. 
per sq. in.; heavy castings, 24,000 lbs. per sq. in. 

(5) Arbitration Bar: This is 1J4" diameter and 15" long. 

Cast in vertical position in dry sand mold, with top 
pour. Transverse test, bar on supports 12" apart. 
Tensile test not recommended, but if made can use 
broken pieces of transverse bar with ends suitably 
turned to threads and middle portion 0.8" diameter for 
1" including fillets. 

(6) Number of test bars: Two sets of two bars from begin- 

ning and same from end of each heat. Where over 
20 tons, additional set of two bars for every extra 
20 tons or fraction thereof. In case of change of mix- 
ture during heat, an extra set of bars for every 
mixture other than the regular one. Each set of two 
bars in single mold. Bars not to be rumbled or other- 
wise treated, but simply brushed off before testing. 

(7) Speed of testing: Rate of application of load from 20 to 

40 seconds for a deflection of 0.10 in. 

(8) Samples for analysis: Broken pieces of Arbitration Bar 

to be used for sulphur analysis. One determination for 
each mold. In case of dispute, standards of U. S. 
Bureau of Standards to be used for comparison. 

(9) Finish: Castings true to pattern. Free from cracks, flaws 

and excessive shrinkage. 

(10) Inspection: All reasonable facilities to be afforded pur- 

chaser to satisfy himself that he gets what he speci- 
fies. Inspection and tests if possible prior to shipment. 

From " Yearbook American Society for Testing Materials." 
41 



Units of Measure 

Acre =20S.7l feet square =43,560 sq. ft. =4,840 sq. yds. =0.404687 
Hectares =4,046.87 sq. meters. 

Barrel = 196 lbs. (Flour) =42 Gal. Oil (Standard Oil Co.) 

Board Foot =one square foot, one inch thick. 

Bushel =^ pecks =32 quarts =2,150.42 cu. in. =1.24446 cu.ft. =35.23928 
liters. 

Cable (Cable length) =720 ft. =120 fathoms =219.457 meters. 

Chain = 100 ft. = 100 links =30.48 meters. 

Cord (of wood) =4 ft. x 4 ft. x 8 ft. = 128 cu. ft. =3.625 cu. meters. 

Dram (apothecary) =3 scruples =60 grains =3.888 grammes. 

jpaf/iom =6 ft. =1.829 meters. 

Foo/ = 12 inches. 

Furlong =660 ft, =40 rods, perches or poles =>^ mile =201.17 meters. 

Gallon =231 cu. in. =3.78543 liters =3,785.43 cu. centimeters. 

Gill=}i pint. 

Grain =0.0648 grammes =64.8 milligrammes. 

■Gramme = \5Ai grains. 

Hogshead =63 gallons =2 barrels (31.5 gallons capacity) =238.48 Liters. 

Inch = 2.54: centimeters =25.4 millimeters. 

Karat =200 milligrammes =0.2 grammes =3.0865 grains. 

Kilogramme = 1 ,000 grammes =2.20462 pounds avd. 

JiCitowe^cr = 1,000 meters =3,280.83 ft. =0.62137 miles. 

Knot (Nautical or geographical mile) =6,080.2 ft. = 1.15155 miles = 
1.85325 kilometers = 1 minute of earth's circumference. 

League = 15,840 ft. =3 miles =4.828 kilometers. 

J^ink =one hundredth of measuring chain = 12 in. (Engineer's chain) = 7.92 
in. (Surveyor's chain) =20 centimeters (Metric chain). 

Liter = 1,000 cu. centimeters =61.023 cu. in. =0.0353 cu. ft. =2.1134 liquid 
pints = 0.2642 gallons. 

Meter =39.37 inches =3.28 ft. 

Mile =5,2SO ft. =1,760 yards. A square mile equals 640 acres =2.59 sq. 
kilometers. 

Milligram =0.001 grammes =0.015432 grains. 

Millimeter =0.001 meters =0.03937 inches. 

Ounce, Apothecary. Same as troy ounce =480 grains =31.104 grammes. 
Avoirdupois =437.5 grains =28.35 grammes =0.9115 ounce troy or 
apothecary. Troy (for gold and silver) =480 grains =20 pennyweight 
= 31.104 grammes = 1.097 ounces avd. 

Peck =0.25 bushels =8.81 liters. 

Pennyweight =24 grains = 1.555 grammes. 

Pint, Liquid =0.125 gallons =0.4732 Hters. Dry =0.5 quarts =0.55061iters. 

Pipe or Butt = 126 gallons =2 hogsheads =476.96 liters. 

Pounds, Avoirdupois = 7 ,000 grains = 16 ounces (avd.) =0.4536 kilogram- 
mes. Troy or Apothecary =5,760 grains = 12 ounces =0.3732 kilo- 
grammes. 

Quart, Liquid =0.25 gallons =0.94634 liters. Dry =0.03125 bushels =67.2 
cu. in. =1.1 liters. 

Rod or Perch or Pole = 16.5 ft. =5.5 yards =5.0292 meters. 

Rood =0.25 acres =40 sq. rods = 1,210 sq. yds. =1,011.72 sq. meters. 

Scruple =20 grains = 1 .296 grammes. 

Section of land = 1 mile square =640 acres. 

Stone = 14 pounds (avd.) =6.35 kilogrammes. 

Ton (gross) Displacement of water =35.88 cu. ft. =1,016 cu. meters, 
(gross or long) =2,240 lbs. (avd.) =1.12 short or net tons = 1,016.05 
kilogrammes = 1.01605 metric tons, (netorshort) =2,000 lbs. (avd.) = 
20 hundredweight =907,185 kilogrammes =0,907185 metric tons = 
0.892857 long tons, (metric) =2,204.62 pounds (avd.) =1.10231 net 
tons =0.9842 long tons = 1,000 kilogrammes. 

Cubic yard =27 cu. ft. =46,656 cu. in. =0.76456 cu. meters. Square 
yard =9 sq. ft. =1,296 sq. in. =0.836 sq. meters. Yard =3 feet =36 
inches =0.9144 meters. 



From Lefax Data Sheet.^, 

42 



TABLES 

Temperature Conversion Formulae 

To change from Fahrenheit scale to Centigrade: 

Subtract 32, multiply remainder by 5 and divide by 9; 
(F° —32) 5 -^9 = C^ 

Centigrade to Fahrenheit: 

Multiply by 9, divide product by 5, add 32 to quotient; 
(C X 9 -^ 5) + 32 = F^ 

Fahrenheit to Reaumur: 

Subtract 32, multiply remainder by 4 and divide by 9; 
(F** _ 32) 4 -H 9 = R°. 

Riaumur to Fahrenheit: 

Multiply by 9, divide product by 4, add 32 to quotient: 
(R° X 9 -i- 4) + 32 = F^ 

Weight of Gases 



Name 


Symbol 


Specific 
Gravity 


Lbs. per 
Cu. Ft. 


Cu. Ft. 
per Lb. 


Air 


O 

N 

H 

NO 

N20 

CO 

C02 

so 2 
NH» 

C2H2 

CU* 

cm* 


1.000 

1.105 

0.970 

0.0696 

1.038 

1.522 

0.968 

1.520 

2.213 

0.590 

0.899 

0.554 

0.520 

0.969 


0.0807 

0.0892 

0.0783 

0.00562 

0.0838 

0.1229 

0.0780 

0.1227 

0.1786 

0.0476 

0.0725 

0.0447 

0.0394 

0.0780 


12.387 


Oxygen 


11 204 




12.753 


Hydrogen 


178.830 


Nitric Oxide 


11.933 


Nitrous Oxide 


8.14& 


Carbon Monoxide 

Carbon Dioxide 


12.804 
8.101 


Sulphur Dioxide . . 


5 590 




21.020 


Acetylene 


13.793 


Methane 


22.350 


Natural Gas 


25.140 


Ethylene 


12.580 







From various sources. 



43 



TABLES 

Metric Conversion Table 

Millimeters X 0.03937 = Inches. 

Millimeters -r 25.4 = Inches. 

Centimeters X 0.3937 = Inches. 

Centimeters -r 2.54 = Inches. 

Meters X 39.37 = Inches. 

Meters X 3.281 = Feet. 

Meters X 1.094 = Yards. 

Kilometers X 0.621 = Miles. 

Kilometers -r 1.6093 == Miles. 

Square Millimeters X 0.00155 = Sq. Inches. 

Square Millimeters -j- 645.1 = Sq. Inches. 

Square Centimeters" X 0.155 = Sq. Inches. 

Squzire Centimeters -r- 6.451 = Sq. Inches. 

Square Meters X 10.764 => Sq. Feet. 

Square Kilometers X 247.1 = Acres. 

Hectare X 2.471 = Acres. 

Cubic Centimeters -r- 16.383 = Cu. Inches. 

Cubic Meters X 35.315 = Cu. Feet. 

Cubic Meters X 1.308 = Cu. Yards 

Cubic Meters X 264.2 = Gallons (231 cu. in.). 

Liters X 61.022 = Cu. Inches. 

Liters X 0.2642 = Gallons. 

Liters -r- 3.785 = Gallons. 

Liters -r- 28.316 - Cu. Feet. 

Hectoliters X 3.531 = Cu. Feet. 

Hectoliters X 2.84 = Bushels (2,150.42 cu. in.). 

Hectoliters X 0.131 = Cu. Yards. 

Hectoliters -r 26.42 = Gallons. 

Grammes X 15.432 = Grains. 

Grammes -r- 28.35 = Ounces Adv. 

Grammes per Cu. Cent, -r 27.7 = Lbs. per Cu. In. 

Kilogrammes X 2.2046 = Pounds. 

Kilogrammes X 35.3 = Ounces Adv. 

Kilogrammes -r 907.2 = Tons (2,000 Lbs.). 

Kilogr. per Sq. Cent. X 14.223 = Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Kilogramme-meters X 7.233 = Foot-pounds. 

Kilogramme per Meter X 0.672 = Pounds per Foot. 

Kilogramme per Cu. Meter X 0.062 = Pounds per Cu. Ft. 

Kilowatt X 1 .34 = Horse Power. 

Watts -r 746 = Horse Power. 

Watts X 0.7373 = Foot Pounds per Second. 

Calorie X 3.968 = British Thermal Unit. 

Cheval Vapeur X 0.9863 = Horse Power. 



From Arrangement byC. W. Hunt, New York. 

44 



Index 



45 



Index 

Page 

Alloys and metals, contraction allowances for various 2S 

Moys, antimony 31 

Alloys, composition of various, by name 28' 

Alloys, fusible 30 

Alloys, tin-copper 32 

Alloys, zinc-copper 33 

American Foundrymen's Association. Scrap specifications. 35 
Amer. Soc. for Testing Materials. Preparation of samples 

for analysis 3& 

A.mer. Soc. for Testing Materials. Standard specifications 

for gray iron castings 41 

Analyses for various classes of castings, recommended 22 

Analyses of molding sands, average 27 

Analysis, preparation of samples for 38' 

Antimony alloys 3L 

Binders, characteristics of core 7 

Binders, classification of core 6 

Binders, comparative value of core 18 

Binders, core 4, 6, 9 

Binders, paste 8 

Binders, selection of core 10 

Binders, various kinds of 6 

Brasses, composition of various, by color 30 

Brasses, melting points of 24 

Brass solders 30 

Bronzes, melting points of 24 

Castings, elements entering into making good 3 

Castings, estimating weight of, from patterns 26 

Castings, recommended analyses for various classes of 22 

Castings, standard specifications for gray iron 41 

Cast iron construction, factors of safety in 38 

Cast iron, melting points of 25 

Cast iron, sampling 39 

Cast iron, scrap specifications 35 

Cast iron, weight of 24 

Chemical and physical data of foundry metals 34 

Coke, sampling 39 

Color, composition of various brasses by 30 

Combustion data for gases 33 

Comparative value of core binders, table of 18 



INDEX 



Converter steel scrap specifications 38 

Contraction allowances for various metals and alloys 25 

Copper-tin alloys 32 

Copper-zinc alloys 33 

Core binders 4, 6, 9 

Core binders, characteristics of 7 

Core binders, classification of 6 

Core binders, selection of 10 

Core binders, table of comparative value of 18 

Core, definition of 3 

Coremaking 3 

Core requirements 6 

Core sand, characteristics of 4 

Cores, softening of 7 

Core tests, comparative 11 

Core tests, discussion of comparative 16 

Cupola melting loss 27 

Cupola melting capacities 28 

Estimating weight of castings from patterns 26 

Plame temperatures 34 

Flour core tests 16 

Foundry metals, physical and chemical data of 34 

Factors of safety in cast iron construction 38 

Fusible alloys 30 

Gases, combustion data for 33 

Gases, weight of 43 

Gray iron castmgs, standard specifications for 41 

Gray iron scrap specifications 35 

Hydrol core tests 14 

Hydrol, weight of 19 

Kordek core tests 13 

Linseed oil core tests 13 

Linseed oil, weight of 19 

Malleable cast iron scrap specifications 36 

Measure, units of 42 

Melting capacities of cupolas 28 

Melting loss in cupolas 27 

Melting points of cast iron, brass, etc 24 



INDEX 

Page 

Metals and alloys, contraction allowances for various 25 

Metals, physical and chemical data of foundry 34 

Metric conversion table 44 

Molasses core tests 14 

Molasses, weight of 19 

Moldenke, Dr. R. : Coremaking 3 

Mold, action of molten metal on 4 

Molding sands, average composition of 27 

Open hearth steel scrap specifications 37 

Patterns, estimating weight of castings from 26 

Physical and chemical data of foundry metals 34 

Pig iron, sampling 39 

Rosin and flour core tests 15 

Samples for analysis, preparation of 38 

Sand characteristics, for cores 4, 5 

Sands, molding, average composition of 27 

Scrap specifications of American Foundrymen's Association 35 

Solders, brass 30 

Solders, melting points of 25 

Specifications for gray iron castings, standard 41 

Specifications for scrap, of American Foundrymen's As- 
sociation 35 

Specific gravity of cast iron 24 

Steel, melting points of 25 

Steel scrap specifications, converter 38 

Steel scrap specifications, open hearth 37 

Sulphite liquor core tests. 15 

Sulphite liquor, weight of 19 

Temperature conversion formulae 43 

Temperatures, flame 34 

Tests, comparative core 11 

Tests, discussion of comparative core 16 

Tin-copper alloys 32 

Units of measure 42 

Weight of cast iron 24 

Weight of gases 43 

Zinc-copper alloys 33 




o 

X 



H 






